Joshua Apte PhD
 https://publichealth.berkeley.edu/people/joshua-apte/ A diagnostic survey is used in conjunction with input from the classroom teacher to identify at-risk children anxiety ridden purchase 300 mg eskalith with visa. Approximately 75 percent reach this level depression assessment proven 300mg eskalith, at which point lessons are discontinued ("discontinued" status) bipolar depression best treatment purchase eskalith without a prescription. For children who do not reach the average level of their class depression symptoms feeling worthless cheap eskalith 300 mg with amex, a team of professionals offers positive recommendations for future action. In addition to the diagnostic survey and individual tutoring, Reading Recovery offers professional development to teachers. University trainers, site-based teacher leaders, and school-based teachers all engage in initial training for an academic year and ongoing professional development in subsequent years. Professional learning also includes attention to the implementation of Reading Recovery in a school or district setting. Reading Recovery is also available in Spanish, known as Descubriendo la Lectura, for children whose classroom literacy instruction is in Spanish. Program Participants Reading Recovery is designed for first-graders who are having difficulty learning to read and write. The intervention is targeted at the lowest literacy achievers in regular first-grade classrooms. Evaluation Methods Schwartz (2005) examined the Reading Recovery intervention as implemented by 47 Reading Recovery teachers across 14 states. Participants volunteered for the study and were not necessarily representative of the national population of teachers implementing Reading Recovery. After obtaining parental consent for their students to participate in the study, each of the 47 teachers chose two low-performing readers to participate. A web program randomly assigned one of these students to the first round of Reading Recovery implementation and the other to the second round of Reading Recovery implementation. They used An Observation Survey of Early Literacy Achievement (the "Observation Survey," Clay, 2002, 2005), a diagnostic test developed by the Reading Recovery program developer (see the Issues to Consider section for more information). The two groups were not different on any of the above measures of reading ability prior to the intervention. Both the first and second-round students were provided with regular classroom literacy instruction throughout the school year. The first-round students participated in the Reading Recovery intervention during the first half of the school year. The intervention lasted up to 20 weeks, or until the student met the Reading Recovery "discontinuing" criteria, whichever came first. Discontinuing criteria indicate that lessons can be discontinued because the child has reached the average level of literacy performance in his or her classroom, has demonstrated use of reading strategies (based on an analysis of reading behaviors when reading continuous text), and is expected to continue to make literacy progress beyond the end of the intervention. First-round students who were not deemed to have successfully terminated the intervention were nevertheless included in the study sample. First round students were compared at the end of their Reading Recovery intervention with the second round students who had not yet received the intervention. While 47 teachers initially volunteered, only data from 37 teachers were included in the analyses. Some students were excluded from the analyses due to incomplete data resulting from study attrition or improper data collection on the part of the teacher. When one student moved or otherwise left the sample, both students for that Reading Recovery teacher were excluded from analysis to obviate issues arising from any teacher-specific effects on outcomes. There have been many additional evaluations of Reading Recovery conducted in the United States. Additionally, students in the first round performed significantly better on the Slosson Oral Reading Test at the end of the first-round intervention compared with second-round students, achieving scores 68 percent higher than those in the control group (no baseline measurement was taken). Probable Implementers School educators, administrators, and school district personnel. Funding Reading Recovery interventions may be funded federally as part of the Title I Reading program, from other Elementary and Secondary Education Act titles (professional development, migrant children, English language learners, and others), and from the budgets of state and local school systems. Department of Education has funded the scale-up of Reading Recovery in the United States with a five-year (2010-2015) Investing in Innovation (i3) Grant. Curriculum While lessons are individually designed and delivered for each child, tutorial sessions typically include six activities. Fifth, the child reconstructs his or her story that has been cut in parts by the teacher. Staffing There are three levels of staffing in Reading Recovery: university trainers, site-based teacher leaders, and school-based teachers. Teacher leaders go through a full year of graduate-level training at a university center recognized by the North American Trainers Group. The courses cover Reading Recovery teaching procedures, theory, and implementation processes. Reading Recovery teachers also commit to an academic year of graduate-level training led by a registered teacher leader. The course uses clinical and peer-critiquing experiences to develop the skills necessary for Reading Recovery teaching. Reading Recovery teachers work with children during the training year; courses are generally after the school day so that service to children is concurrent with training. Issues to Consider Reading Recovery received a "proven" rating, indicating that it used a rigorous research design to show that the observed impact on reading skills was likely due to the Reading Recovery intervention. It must be noted, however, that the main measure of reading success, An Observation Survey of Early Literacy Achievement (Clay, 2002, 2005), was designed by the individuals who developed Reading Recovery. There is some evidence that a relationship exists between the measures that were used and the intervention itself, suggesting that what is taught is what gets measured (Shanahan and Barr, 1995). Schwarz (2005) did use standardized tests in addition to the Clay Observation Survey. Three of the four of these standardized tools showed no significant difference between Reading Recovery children and the comparison group. It should be noted that in the Schwartz (2005) study, the participating teachers volunteered to participate in the study. These teachers might be different from the typical teacher implementing Reading Recovery, and likewise the classrooms might be different from the typical classrooms implementing Reading Recovery. Evaluation data on every child receiving the Reading Recovery intervention are available on the International Data Evaluation Center website: Example Sites Reading Recovery was first implemented in the United States in several schools in Columbus, Ohio, and then expanded statewide. Since 1984, the intervention has been implemented in most of the states in the United States and provinces in Canada. Reading Recovery continues implementations in New Zealand, Australia, and the United Kingdom. These centers provide Reading Recovery training as well as technical support to teacher leaders, teachers, and school administrators. Burroughs-Lange, Sue, and Julia Douetil, "Literacy Progress of Young Children from Poor Urban Settings: A Reading Recovery Comparison Study," Literacy Teaching and Learning, Vol. Center, Yola, Kevin Wheldall, Louella Freeman, Lynne Outhred, and Margaret McNaught, "An Evaluation of Reading Recovery," Reading Research Quarterly, Vol. Prochnow, "Does Success in the Reading Recovery Program Depend on Developing Proficiency in Phonological-Processing Skills
Just as a high temperature clear indications of significant symptomatol reading can be symptomatic of a host of ogy or impairment mood disorder children buy generic eskalith on-line. Teachers depression anatomical definition purchase eskalith 300mg with mastercard, pediatricians anxiety vest for dogs order 300 mg eskalith, disorders from influenza to appendicitis depression online test order eskalith with a mastercard, or other referral sources who receive this so, too, a pathognomic behavioral sign can interpretation consistently from the same reveal a host of possible conditions. If a test score is invalid, how does to the presentation of results and recom it serve the child to have this score as part mendations. Some ently invalid scores is akin to a physician examples of stated and true referral ques making a diagnostic decision on the basis tions are shown below: of a fasting blood test when the patient violated the fasting requirements. This stance gist to confirm it applies to scores that are deemed invalid or A parent wants the parent thinks the circumstances in which the psychometrics to know why a child is depressed and underlying the scores are questionable. In child is failing in would like her to be on these situations, disregarding the informa school medication tion from the measure or providing only A psychiatrist the psychiatrist has made descriptions of the responses may better wants to know the diagnosis of inform case conceptualization. The referral was made simply because a second Failure to address Referral opinion is required for reimbursement purposes Questions A psychologist the psychologist is Tallent (1993) points out that psychologists wants to know seeking a diagnosis of too often fail to demand clear referral ques if the child is traumatic brain injury in tions, and as a result, their reports appear neurologically order to bolster her court vague and unfocused. One study evaluated the psychologist in the position of disap teacher preferences for and comprehension pointing the referral source before the of varying report formats (Wiener, 1985). Under these this study required a group of elementary circumstances, the psychologist may feel school teachers to read and rate their com helpless or even betrayed because of the prehension of and preferences for three negative reaction of the referral source different reports for the same child. Parents are concerned that John is aware of the risks of th is poor adherence but seems apathetic. Results of Consultation: Patient appears depressed and seems knowledgeable about diabetes and his diabetes regimen. In particular, his parents noted that he appears sad most of the time, lacks energy, has reduced his contact with friends, and does not seem interested in activities that he used to enjoy. Rating scales completed by patient and his mother showed moderate levels of depression. Signed Title Date Figure 16. The short jargon were only used when they were form report was one page, single-spaced. The question-and-answer It used some jargon, such as acronyms, to report was similar to the psychoeduca shorten length; conclusions were drawn tional report in many ways, but it did not without reference to a data source; and use headings per se. This report listed recommendations were given without referral questions and then answered elaboration. This report was report format was three and a half sin four and a half pages long. It used headings such Amazingly, in this study, the partici as reason for referral, Learning Style, pants preferred length. First, teachers Mathematics, Conclusions, and recom comprehended the two longer reports mendations. These are intriguing results in parents using the same methodology, Wie that they hint that length may be overrated ner and Kohler (1986) found that teachers as a problem in report writing and that and parents have similar preferences. In teachers may prefer a question-and-answer this second study, the same three report report format. As was the case with because this format is rarely used in reports teachers, parents comprehended the two from clinical assessments. An interesting reports are to answer the referral ques additional finding was that parents with a tions; describe the person; organize the college education comprehended reports data; and recommend interventions (p. The results of these two studies suggest Define abbreviations and that the two most frequent consumers of acronyms child and adolescent psychological reports, parents and teachers, consider the clarity Acronyms are part of the idiosyncratic of reports to be more important than their language of psychological assessment. They also show a prefer They can greatly facilitate communi ence for reports that have referral ques cation among psychologists, but they tions as their focus. Cognizance of these hinder communication with non-psy two findings may benefit psychologists who chologists. A pediatrician would Suggested Practices not ask a mother if her child had an eme sis; rather, the physician would inquire Report Only pertinent whether or not the child vomited. When writing a report, psycholo Information gists should limit their use of acronyms One of the most difficult decisions to make and should define any acronym used in a when writing a report involves gauging the report. He tells the Particularly in the test results section of a clinician that she is dating other men, and he report, clinicians must resist a temptation believes that she is not spending adequate to focus exclusively on numbers. Words often communicate more the in-formation that they include in effectively than numbers because they reports and consider its relevance to the communicate more directly and in a more case. Jargon or convoluted writing makes these important distinctions difficult to be made Reduce Difficult Words out by the reader. The difficult part for report writers is following through on Briefly Describe the this advice. The first excerpt uses vocabulary that is unneces In many cases, it is safe to assume that the sarily complex for most consumers of reader of the report has little knowledge of reports. When practical, we sug of the first paragraph that uses a more gest that report writers describe the nature practical vocabulary level. The naive reader of a report will also be There is also evidence from the test data to sug helped by descriptors of the nature of a scale gest that Pam is obdurate in response to anxiety. This She may also tend to be very concrete and not observation is particularly true for scales notice some of the subtleties of interpersonal that are not adequately described by their discourse. Depression scales are a good exam may fnd it diffcult to generate effective social ple of scales that may be perceived inappro problem-solving strategies and mechanisms for priately. It may well be that more clearly by using, among other things, a Depression score indicates significance simpler language. Because of these behavior pat edit the Report terns, Pam has trouble making friends. We have found that a number of our related to the use of difficult words is the students do not take a critical eye toward issue of using the correct person. We have editing their own work and not just in occasionally seen reports where instead terms of grammar and spelling. Impressed with such astuteness, the to clarify Meaning young man painted over the obviously superfu Because there is some disagreement regard ous word. Once more our hero bowed to the include anxiety, cooperation, dependent, hyper strength of logic. Psychologists do not need to engage in such Emilio exhibited considerable anxiety during severe editing, but they should at least make the testing. Judicious editing can go a long way toward clarifying meaning in a Emilio appeared anxious during the testing. Sometimes new clinicians are not used frequently asked whether or not he had solved to critiquing their own writing. He occasionally looked at available option is to have a colleague read the ticking stopwatch during an item and then reports. Confidentiality, however, should be hurried, and his face became fushed when it kept in mind if an editor is used. An additional benefit of using examples Use headings and Lists Freely of behavior generously is that it forces the Headings and lists can enhance the clar psychologist to consider the extent of sup ity of communication (Harvey, 1989). If a psychologist writes conclusions about a child, the conclusions that a child is anxious but cannot think of can sometimes lose their impact if they are behaviors to help explain this, then the embedded in paragraphs. Buy 300 mg eskalith with visa. What is periodic depression ? |Top Answers about Health.
Difficulty concentrating or mind going 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 blank because of anxiety anxiety jacket for dogs order generic eskalith online. Meets criteria for at least four of the 0 1 2 0 1 2 seven anxiety symptoms surveyed anxiety 8 months postpartum buy eskalith online from canada. Individuals must now also report that they find it difficult to control their worries postnatal depression definition medical generic 300 mg eskalith with visa, and that they experience distress or impairment depression symptoms oversleeping discount eskalith 300 mg free shipping. Purpose of Compulsions Behavior designed to 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 prevent discomfort or some Why do you do Perception of Compulsion Do you think that you do Person recognizes that 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 more than you should Time Consuming About how much time do Compulsions performed 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 you spend Aggressive thoughts (concerning 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 self or others) c. Need for Symmetry or Exactness 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 (certainty/precision/order) e Meaningless 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 phrases/sounds/images f. Thoughts Intrusive/Senseless Does it bother you Thoughts are perceived as 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 that these thoughts intrusive or senseless, at keep coming in your least initially. Suppression When you have these Attempts to ignore, 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 thoughts, do you try to suppress, or neutralize stop them. Do you ever try thinking about other things or going and doing things to get them out of your mind Origin of Thoughts Where do you think Obsessions seen as 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 these thoughts come product of his/her mind, from Do they come not imposed from without from your head or do (not thought insertion) other people put them in your mind Time Consuming About how much time Obsessions thought of 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 do you spend thinking more than one hour per about Recurrent and persistent ideas, thoughts that at least initially are perceived as intrusive and senseless; 2. Behavior designed to neutralize or to prevent discomfort or some dreaded event or situation, however, the activity is not connected in a realistic way with what it is designed to neutralize or prevent, or it is clearly excessive. Forget to do the problems on both sides of a Problem has only minimal effect on functioning. Has your teacher ever said you should 3 3 3 Threshold: Often makes careless mistakes. Problem has moderate Rate based on data reported by informant or effect on functioning. When your parents or your teacher tell you to do something, is it sometimes hard to 2 2 2 Subthreshold: Occasionally has difficulty following remember what they said to do Do you lose points on your assignments for not following directions or not 3 3 3 Threshold: Often has difficulty following instructions. Do you sometimes get into trouble for 2 2 2 Subthreshold: Occasionally fidgets with hands or feet or squirming in your seat or playing with little things squirms in seat. Does your mom often have to remind you to walk instead of run when you are out 2 2 2 Subthreshold: Occasionally runs about or climbs excessively. Answer questions your parents ask your 2 2 2 Subthreshold: Occasionally talks out of turn. Do kids complain that you break 2 2 2 Subthreshold: Occasionally interrupts others. Do you have 2 2 2 Subthreshold: Occasionally shifts tasks and does not finish trouble sticking with one activity Do people in your family complain 2 2 2 Subthreshold: Occasionally talks excessively. Do other things that your parents think 2 2 2 Subthreshold: Occasionally engages in activities that are are dangerous, like jump from tall heights Duration For how long have you had trouble (list 6 months 0 1 2 O 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 symptoms that were positively or more endorsed) Age of Onset How old were you when you first started Onset 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 having trouble (list symptoms) Meets Criteria for at least six or more of the following nine symptoms: 1) Fidget 2) Difficulty Remaining Seated 3) Runs or Climbs Excessively 4) Difficulty Playing Quietly 5) On the go/Acts as if Driven by a Motor 6) Talks Excessively 7) Blurts Out Answers 8) Difficulty Waiting Turn 9) Often interrupts or intrudes B. Predominantly Inattentive Type Meets criterion Ai, but not criterion Aii for past six 0 1 2 0 1 2 months. Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Type Meets criterion Aii, but not criterion Ai for past six 0 1 2 0 1 2 months. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Not Otherwise Specified Prominent symptoms of inattention or hyperactivity 0 1 2 0 1 2 impulsivity that do not meet criteria for Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Do you get really annoyed when your parents 2 2 2 Subthreshold: Easily annoyed or angered on occasion. Angry other people tell you that you get cranky a more often than a typical child his/her age (1 3 times a lot What if your brother or 2 2 2 Subthreshold: Spiteful and/or vindictive on occasion. Are there times when 3 3 3 Threshold: Spiteful and/or vindictive daily or almost people do something to you and you let it daily. Is it usually your fault or someone 2 2 2 Subthreshold: On occasion blames others for own else Duration How long have you had 6 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 problems with your temper months (or other symptoms) About house, car, store, or building, but did not actively how many times have you broken into a house, participate. Have 2 2 2 Subthreshold: Stayed out all night, or almost all night, on you ever stayed out all night Have you ever used a weapon against someone else, including using bricks, broken bottles, or 2 2 2 Subthreshold: Has threatened use of a weapon, but has other things Have you ever beat someone up real bad for no real reason, or just because they are a nerd What did they say 2 2 2 Subthreshold: Forced someone to participate in non happened Shot at one with a 2 2 2 Subthreshold: Has killed or tortured an animal on only bee-bee gun About how many times have you hurt an animal on purpose in 3 3 3 Threshold: Has killed or tortured an animal on 2 or more the last six months Duration Criteria For how long did you 6 months 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 (list positively endorsed or more conduct symptoms) Group Type Did you usually do (list Predominance 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 positively endorsed of conduct conduct symptoms) with problems occur your friends Solitary Aggressive Type Did you usually do (list positively endorsed conduct symptoms) alone Most conduct 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 - by yourself. Undifferentiated Type Conduct Did you do some of the symptoms 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 things we talked about cannot be with your friends, and classified as others on your own Childhood Onset Type How old were you when you Onset of at 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 first started to (list positively least one endorsed items) Meets criteria for at least three of the 0 1 2 0 1 2 following 13 symptoms surveyed within a given 6 month time period: Lies, truant, physical fights, nonaggressive stealing, vandalism, breaking and entering, aggressive stealing, firesetting, ran away overnight, use of a weapon, physical cruelty to persons, forced sexual activity, cruelty to animals. Meets criteria for at least three of the 0 1 2 0 1 2 following 15 conduct symptoms in the past 12 months, with at least one criterion present in the past 6 months: Lies, truant, physical fights, bullies, often stays out at night, nonaggressive stealing, vandalism, breaking and entering, aggressive stealing, firesetting, ran away overnight, use of a weapon, physical cruelty to persons, forced sexual activity, cruelty to animals. Childhood-Onset Type Onset of at least one criterion prior to the age of 0 1 2 0 1 2 10 years. Severe Many conduct problems in excess of those 0 1 2 0 1 2 required to make diagnosis or conduct problems cause considerable harm to others (eg. Have you accidently hurt yourself when 2 2 2 Subthreshold: Negative consequences on you were drinking Woken up the next day not 3 3 3 Threshold: Negative consequences on 2 or remembering what you did the night before Exams you messed up because you were too drunk or hung 2 2 2 Subthreshold: Negative consequences on over to study for
Rideout and Elizabeth Hamel depression test bc buy generic eskalith 300mg online, the Media Family: Electronic Media in the Lives of Infants anxiety vs adhd discount eskalith online master card, Toddlers anxiety icd 9 purchase 300mg eskalith, Preschoolers anxiety in the morning buy generic eskalith, and their Parents (Menlo Park, Calif. Data are missing for younger children in the frst part of the table because subgroup analyses were not reported and, in the second and third part of the table, because particular questions were not asked of young children. Television has tous personal medium among children, but penetrated 99 percent of all households with far from the only one. In 2003, 23 percent of children, and more than 95 percent of those children in the birth to six-year age range had same households have video players, radios, a video player in their bedroom, 10 percent and compact disc and tape audio players. Not surprisingly, the young children (birth to six years) and 85 proportions climb as children get older. Moreover, most children 31 percent have a computer of their own, half live with several of these media. In 2004, 61 per two video game consoles, and a personal cent of eight to eighteen-year-olds claimed computer. Indeed, the presence of youngsters in device (Internet connectivity via cell phone a household stimulates early adoption of the was relatively rare at that time). For example, the 73 fusion of such media among youth is further percent computer penetration Nielsen found attested to by estimates from 2005 that 45 for all U. S households in 2007 is substantially percent of teens owned their own cell phone, below the 85 percent penetration found three up from 39 percent in 2004. Foehr people carry most forms of portable digital Internet connections, according to differenc media to school with them, most schools in es in socioeconomic status, race and ethnicity, the United States are now wired. Department of Educa socioeconomic status or ethnic groups use the tion data indicate that 100 percent of U. As fgure 1 shows, fewer than 60 usage during the mid-1990s and originally percent of homes with annual incomes under referred to variations in access (in homes, $20,000 have computers, as against more than schools, or other public locations) to personal 90 percent of homes with annual earnings of computers and allied technologies, such as $60,000 or more. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2003, Computer and Internet Use Supplement (Department of Commerce, 2003). Roberts, Ulla Foehr, and Victoria Rideout, Generation M: Media in the Lives of 8 to 18-year-olds (Menlo Park, Calif. Ninety-one percent of eight to public schools (with broadband connections eighteen-year-olds whose parents completed not far behind), schools with the highest college have access to an in-home personal poverty concentrations have higher ratios of computer as compared with 84 percent of students to instructional computers (5:1 versus those whose parents attended but did not 4. Moreover, the Ownership of allied computer technologies likelihood of having a website that can make such as Internet connections and instant information available to parents and students messaging programs follows the same pattern, is lower both in schools with high minority with more access in homes where parents enrollments and in schools with the highest completed college and less in homes where concentrations of poverty. Figure 2 illus from higher-income households are more trates differences of in-home computer avail than twice as likely as those from the lowest ability as a function of race and ethnicity. Because time-use diaries were not obtained for the 2005 sample of young children, total media use estimates are not available for them. Unfor media exposure report time devoted to each tunately, however, overall media use is not of several different media, we have located a straightforward summation of time exposed no research published before 1999 that esti to each individual medium. The Foehr, and Victoria Rideout conjecture that a exposure-use distinction has become espe ceiling for media use may have been reached, cially important as new media, particularly but that the explosion of new media has led the personal computer, have increased the to increased exposure because of increases amount of concurrent media use as well as in the proportion of media time that young the rate of media multitasking among young people use several media concurrently. In what follows, then, media use refers to the amount of time young people Table 2 provides little support for speculation devote to all media (that is, person hours that newer media, such as computers, the devoted to using media); media exposure Internet, and video games, are displacing such refers to media content encountered by older media as television. Thus, as table 2 children and adolescents, in 2004, eight to indicates, although total media exposure eighteen-year-olds reported an average of increased substantially from 1999 to 2004, the 7:50 of daily electronic media exposure, but increment was due almost completely to packed all that content into just over 5:48 of increases in time with video games and media use. In 1999, eight to eighteen-year-olds not to displacement of older media such as engaged in media multitasking 17 percent of television. In short, total media exposure the time, ftting 6:45 exposure into 5:40 me increased, media multitasking increased, total dia use. It drops off slightly for a brief period, We have located no estimates of the amount then climbs to a peak of just over eight hours of time that young people spend using such daily at around eleven to twelve years, new, portable media as cell phones or personal followed by a gradual decline (to about seven data assistants. Total Media Exposure and Television Exposure, by Age Hours daily exposure 8 7 6 5 Total media 4 Television 3 2 1 2 6 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Age in years Source: Donald F. For example, among older youths, olds average leisure-related computer time exposure to audio media, which is generally reaches 1:22. We suspect that several factors synonymous with music exposure, is posi account for increased computer time among tively and linearly related to age. As youngsters grow older they become grow older, they are exposed to more audio more adept at using computers, particularly media. A similar positive link exists for age at navigating the Internet, and they fnd more and computer time. Conversely, video game and more sites relevant to their needs and in playing is negatively related to age. In addition, as computers take on the of exposure to audio media, table 2 illustrates functions of most other media (young people that music listening starts out relatively low use them to listen to music, watch movies and (less than an hour daily at age eight), but flm clips, play interactive games, and read the climbs continually from that point, to more newspaper), it is not surprising that adoles than three hours by age eighteen. For example, for teenagers to have music whenever they in 2005, the Pew Internet and American Life want, wherever they are. Computers follow Project reported that of the 87 percent of a similar pattern, but for somewhat differ U. Eight through ten-year-olds half (55 percent) used online social network report 0:37 daily of nonschool computer use; ing sites, and that 55 percent had created a by eleven to fourteen years the average is personal profle online. Race and ethnicity are also related to similar differences in media exposure among older Race and Ethnicity and Media Exposure youths. African American and Hispanic Media exposure among young children, youths report more overall media exposure especially exposure to screen media such as than whites (total daily media exposure is television, videos, and movies, is related to 10:10, 8:52, and 7:58 for African Americans, race and ethnicity. And Elizabeth Hamel found that African American again, as illustrated in fgure 4, exposure children from birth to age six spend signif differs depending on the medium, with screen cantly more time with television (1:18 daily) media (television, videos, and movies) ac than do either Hispanic children (1:00) or counting for most of the overall media white children (0:53). African American youths replicates a pattern found with a slightly older spend more time with television (4:05) than sample (two to seven-year-olds) a few years do either Hispanic (3:23) or white youths earlier, when African American children (2:45), and when all screen media are com Figure 4. A similar pattern exists for time two to eighteen-year-olds from households devoted to playing interactive games: African earning more than $40,000 annually reported American youngsters report the most game signifcantly less exposure to television, to playing (0:40 daily), followed by Hispanic videos and movies, and to video games, than youngsters (0:34), then white youngsters (0:30). On the other hand, race and ethnicity are not related to exposure to audio media, Reports of substantial and although a signifcantly higher share of differences in media exposure white youths (57 percent) than either African American (44 percent) or Hispanic (47 as a function of socioeconomic percent) report using a computer on any given status are common, but recent day, the three groups do not differ reliably in the amount of time they use computers. These relationships between media use and did their counterparts from households race and ethnicity largely withstand controls earning less than $25,000, resulting (not for socioeconomic status. Reports of substantial differences in media exposure as a function of socioeconomic status Recently, however, the picture has become are common, but recent research indicates clouded. |
